Some teachers induce the belief that painting in oils or water color can be achieved without first having to learn to draw. This is about as absurd as if one were to study electrical engineering without first knowing the difference between a volt and an ampere. Painting cannot be separated from drawing.

Painting is simply the art of drawing in color. Without understanding the elementary principles of drawing, color work will always show errors to the educated eye, if not to that of the untrained pupil. The study of color is a branch of drawing by itself and should not be considered separately.

Nature is a great teacher, but many of her rules are concealed and not readily found. To know some of her laws in advance will make instruction very much easier. Certain fixed rules, once memorized, will enable both teacher and pupil to see nature with eyes of intelligence. Few errors of an artistic nature are greater than those made by the ambitious, but untrained, student of art, who goes to nature direct to solve the mysteries of her color scheme. It requires more than superficial observation to enable one to grasp the problem of harmonious color combinations and contrasts. Color intuition and perception often is innate, but it must be cultivated before one can approach an imitation of the subtleties of the tints and gradations that nature’s pallette shows.

“If I only knew how to mix colors, I know I could paint,” wails the Tyro.

Yet mixing the colors is the easiest part after all. The great thing is the application. However, the “knowing how to mix them” should be learned first. Nature may inspire artistic feeling which is the impetus of true genius, but she cannot instill within the mind of the untutored that which is in itself a science almost separate and distinct. A knowledge of the rudiments of this science is needed even in the simplest work; without it, the time taken up in the exercise of painting is utterly lost.

The A, B, C of Color may be memorized readily, but it must be borne in mind that regular formulas for mixing pigments cannot be given as one would name the exact quantities in a medical prescription or the proportions in a recipe for making a salad. Only by practical operation of the brief instructions that are given in these pages will the student gain an understanding of the rules of color, contrast and harmony.

The Colors are divided into primaries (or elementaries), secondaries and tertiaries. In other words, first, second and third colors.

A primary color is one that cannot be produced by an admixture of others.

Yellow is a primary color, and stands first, for it is the
nearest approach in color to light.

Red comes next, and is the intermediary between yellow
and blue, which is the third and remaining primary color.

In theory, from these three colors alone, all other colors may be had.

Next to white, in color, we may class yellow, a primary intimately related to white as between light and color. Yellow, like white, is an advancing color, some form of it appears in nearly every palette.

From the primaries are formed the secondaries, orange (a mixture of yellow and red), green (a mixture of yellow and blue), and purple (a mixture of red and blue). The tertiary colors are:

- Citron, made of orange mixed with green.

- Russet (or brown), made of orange mixed with purple.

- Olive, made of purple mixed with green.

Beyond this extent innumerable combinations are obtained by mixing the various tints and colors of varying inherent qualities.

Charcoal is a material that can be used with striking effect and on a large scale. It is also adapted to the most careful work, where a nigh degree of finish is required. Charcoal is especially valuable as a medium, for the reason that it can be so easily erased. Charcoal is used in the principal art schools of the world for drawing from the cast and from the human figure. It is well adapted to sketching from nature. By its use, the most charming landscapes and marine effects may be obtained. For monochrome, moonlight effects, it is not to be surpassed.

Two Methods of Drawing in Charcoal Prevail – First, that in which the charcoal point is used alone, the shading being put in with lines which are not blended, without the use of the stump or rubbing of any kind.

Second, that in which the charcoal is blended with the stump or a soft rag, no lines being visible in the modeling. This manner of drawing is most popular in schools, and with reason, for it is susceptible of higher finish than the first method described. It is by this means that charcoal and crayon portraits are drawn.

Paper for Charcoal and Crayon Drawing – For general purposes, the rough charcoal paper, made especially for the purpose, is the best.

Crayon – Black crayon comes in several numbers or degrees of hardness and is to be had in two forms. First, the wooden pencils, and also in the shape of short sticks. The latter should be fastened in a crayon holder while using. For most purposes, crayon No.2 is sufficient.

In addition to this, a fine, black, powdered crayon, called “sauce crayon,” may be used. It comes in handy when large masses of dark are necessary and is rubbed on with a stump.

Stumps are made of leather, chamois skin and paper. For school purposes, paper stumps will be all that need be used. The stumps come in two forms, one made in various sizes of rough paper, measuring from one-fourth to an inch or more in diameter.

The other form of paper stump is known as the tortillon, and is made of strips of paper rolled to a point, like spills. It is used in detail work, where the other form of stump would be too coarse.

Ordinary bread, at least a day old, that is free from butter. lard or milk in its making, is used for rubbing out charcoal or crayon, erasing mistakes, and taking out lights from a mass of dark. In order to correct a line or erase the charcoal by means of the bread, take a small piece between the fingers, roll it into a ball and shape it to a point, use it as you would a rubber eraser only more slowly.

A fine, soft, cotton rag is a necessary adjunct to work with charcoal or crayon. It is used sometimes to dust the charcoal from the paper, and if the charcoal has not been very heavily used, the rag is often sufficient to make an erasure without the use of bread or rubber. A rag is useful also when too much charcoal or crayon has been rubbed on a tone.

If a shadow appears too black, a soft rag may be passed gently over the surface, when the superfluous charcoal or crayon will come off, leaving behind a tone more soft and light in quality. This tone can be worked over in any manner desired. The rag, too, may be used in sketching landscapes to spread a soft, flat mass, such as a sky. In many cases, it is preferable to use the stump for this purpose. In lieu of the “sauce,” charcoal may be powdered and used in the same manner as the “sauce.”

Cut out the center from an oblong of cardboard as shown in Fig. 2. Hold it either vertically or horizontally as a picture frame at arm’s length and select what to draw by moving the frame from side to side or up and down. Then draw what appears within.

In drawing both figures and trees, it is well to begin with the simplest forms; the figures without the adornment of clothes or even flesh, the trees without foliage.

Contrasts and Values

“Value” as understood in the terms of art expresses the comparative relations of tones to each other, whether of shade or color.

In making a drawing of a landscape, we would look at the tone of the trees against the sky and observe which is darker. If the sky be heavy and stormy and the light comes from behind the spectator, the trees may seem light by comparison, while the sky is darker in value.

On the contrary, under ordinary circumstances, trees with dark, rich foliage would stand out in strong relief against the sky, the latter being this time lighter in value than the trees.

The Keynote of a Picture – Similarly, we compare the rocks with the water, the fence to the road, the bough of the trees with the foliage, and so on, according to the different objects that come within the draftsman’s vision. In the production of a drawing containing light and shade as it appears to the eye, in order to obtain the best results, it is necessary to establish at once the darkest value in the whole. This, the deepest spot of shadow in the picture, becomes the keynote with which all other tones of light or dark my be compared.

Only by studying and observing the comparative variety of tones do we arrive at correct values.

As an important quality in art, this cannot be over-estimated, for the quality of a picture is apt to depend on a just appreciation of the values that it contains.

Exercises in Single Line Direction – The exercise in Fig 5 require careful attention. They are adaptable for any medium except the brush. Their significance lies in the fact that the principle lines in each scene are made with strokes in the same general direction. This does not apply, of course, to the details. In the upper sketch, the prevailing lines are vertical; in the middle scene, the lines are horizontal, while in the bottom scene, most of the lines are oblique.

Foregrounds and Backgrounds – There is no absolute rule regulating the question as to whether the foreground should be darker in tone than the background; for circumstances, as to time and place. must be taken into consideration. Generally speaking, however, the foreground and middle ground should be the parts of the picture in which appears the greatest display of color or tone; where the darkest effects are shown.

Suitable Contrast - It is, however, more a question of suitable contrast than anything else. In pictures where a single human figure or a group occupies the foreground, the background should be light and merely suggestive in the way of details. The contrast is more generally produced by having the objects in the foreground dark and those in the background light. The lines in the background should, in certain instances, be much finer than those in the foreground, and with very slight, if any, accentuations.

Avoid Flatness – The keynote of attractiveness in a picture is frequently a matter of contrasts. Flatness is an almost unpardonable fault. By introducing strong contrasts, flatness is avoided. By playing heavy lines against light ones, strong tones against weak ones, contrasts are produced.

Practice Outline – The outline is of the greatest importance, frequently being complete in itself as a means of representation of form. To copy slavishly the outlines found in copies or nature is not altogether necessary if the general forms are preserved.

Mass Drawing – In drawing, a knowledge of the masses will aid greatly in giving the general impression and in indicating the position and form of the various details. These masses should be shaded in the drawing to reproduce the tones as they appear to the eye. A soft pencil is best adapted for this purpose. A very limited range of tones is required to produce excellent results. It is best to draw masses not with the point of the pencil, but by holding it at an angle and drawing with the side of the lead. This is to relieve the mind of the impression of lines and to allow the mind to concern itself simply with the shape and density of the various tones of light and dark. It is a good plan to outline the various masses before filling them in, as this will enable the pupil to adhere more closely to the true shapes and edges of the masses.

Easy Examples in Light and Shade – The examples below show how, by simple means, the direction of the light may be indicated. In 1 may be seen the light coming from the right side; 2 shows the light coming from above, and in 3 the light on the walnut is from below.

The heavy lines in an outline or slightly shaded drawing should be made to indicate those parts which are against the light; the light lines the parts nearest to the light. In the drawings of the tree trunks, light and shade effects are shown by opposite instances. In 4 the light comes from the right, in 5 from the left. Draw other objects from nature or imagination, such as a cup, a stone, an ink-bottle or top, and note the light and shade effects.

Accentuation in Outline Drawings – In outline drawings, this general rule may well be adopted, subject to exceptions dependable largely on the common sense of teacher and pupil: The strongest accents and broadest lines should represent the nearest or most important lines of the subject.

Lines representing portions of the background or unimportant detail should be drawn with lighter and less accented strokes.

Accented lines can be taught profitably at the outset almost. Their use produces facility and strength in handling. The invariable use of unaccented lines is more or less offending, even to the uneducated eye.

In the upper drawing the lines are even, monotonous. In the lower one accentuation is evident. Which is the more pleasing to the eye?

Figs. 11, 12, 13 and 14. Fig. II is the beginning of the finished sketch, Fig. 12; while Fig 13 is the beginning of the finished sketch, Fig. 14. When drawing Fig. 12, the pupil finished the foreground first, which looked strong at the time. Nevertheless, when the background was put in, with its tones similar to the foreground, the latter appeared weak. Fig. 13 shows the beginning of the other sketch, Fig. 14. In this drawing the background was finished first and the foreground last. As a result, the foreground stands out strongly in contrast to the background. Whenever the background is put in first the impulse is to place strength in the foreground. By doing so an arrangement .of strongly contrasting light and dark tones is more apt to be produced, giving to the sketch the ever desired effect of power and value.

Tints Relatively Light or Dark – illustrates the fact that tints are only relatively light or dark. In the first illustration, all of the branches seem quite dark because they are projected against a white background. In the illustration at the right, a mass of darker foliage is introduced; the result is that, by comparison, the boughs and twigs, though in the same tone, or shade, seem light in color, except where there is a projection beyond the area of the foliage. This is a matter that should be kept in mind, for nearly as much depends on the scale and key in drawing as in music.

Shadows Should Not Be Confused With Reflection – There can be reflected darks as well as lights. Thus, we are apt to speak of shadows in the water when we really refer to reflections. There can, of course, be shadows thrown into any body of water. Reflections are cast only on the surface of the water, and the surface is generally what we see. In fact, the less clear the light and water the more clear are the reflections. And in this case a shadow would hardly be seen.

Because it is customary, we say, “Reflections in the water.”

Reflections, however, are on the water.

Reflections are not affected in shape by any changes except by those on the surface of the water, such as ripples or waves.

Reflections have the same perspective as the object causing them except that the former are inverted.

Shadows Not Considered as Lines – In putting in shadows and tones, lines should not be considered as lines, but simply as part of the surface by which we endeavor to represent or render something in nature or as a result of imagination. The lines placed more or less evenly and close together are components of some unit or part of a whole. By such means we try to imitate nature.

Where to Avoid Placing Lights – Every object under the influence of a single light receives it only on that surface which is exposed to its direct rays. Therefore, avoid strong lights on the shaded side of an object.

The Comparative Values of Different Tones should be explained to pupils at frequent intervals. The illustration above is a pencil exercise in which the contrasting effect of a single tone is again shown by means of contrasting effects. Note that the prevailing tone on the telegraph post is the same throughout.

Yet, while against the sky, it appears as a dark mass, as, contrasted with the still darker tones of the wall, it is comparatively light.

The drawing of the skeleton of the wreck of a small sailing vessel on a sandy beach shows the brilliant effects caused by a strong, direct sunlight on a light surface. The shadows are crisp and rather sharply defined, with small, clustered blacks accentuating the high lights. The shadows are concentrated and scarcely weakened by reflected lights. This drawing is not a “studio” composition, but made directly from a sketch made on the shore of Lake Michigan several years ago.

Shadows from the Point of Projection – Shadows broaden if there are reflected lights that may cause multiplication of the shadows; thus, as in the illustration the shadows broaden as they leave the spouts. This is owing to the presence of reflected light. Reflected lights are those which are thrown from one object to another, each object in turn reflecting light which, coming in contact with still another object, causes the latter to throw a shadow.

It will be enough to lay down a few condensed rules for ordinary use in the study of light and shade.

Intercepted rays of light cause shadows.

The light may be direct from the sun, candle, lamp or any glowing substance. These throw strongly defined shadows.

Or the light may be caused by diffused or reflected rays. Diffused lights are such as are given by a north window without the presence of sunshine, by the lights we receive on a cloudy or misty day. These lights cast soft and more or less undefined shadows.

Reflected Light – A reflected light is cast into a room by an outside wall opposite a window, and is usually a subdued 1ight. The reflected light cast by a mirror should not strictly be considered as a reflected light, for the rays are almost as strong as the source itself. The side of a cloud in the east will, at sunset, cast a reflected light on the earth. In the same manner will the side of a piece of chalk facing the window cast a reflected light on an object facing opposite the window light, but so placed as to be within the rays of the bit of chalk. The general effect is the same, be the scale great or small.

Shadows Have No Substance – An object seen through a shadow, but beyond its area, is seen as plainly as if the shadow were not there. A shadow is not a dark object in itself. If an object comes within the scope of a shadow thrown by another object it will receive that shadow, but if it is beyond the shadow, although within the direct line cast by the shadow it wilJ not be affected.

Shadows are invisible unless they have some plane or object upon which to fall.

In landscape work one is apt to forget the direction from which the light comes.

Density of Atmosphere Renders Distant Objects Less Distinct – For that reason the objects nearest to the eye should be drawn with strong lines and tones to indicate their nearness. Therefore, subdue the distant tints and intensify those appearing in the foreground.

Direction of Outlines – As a general rule, any object with a decided form should have shading to correspond with the direction of outlines or to the general shape of the object itself; thus, curved objects may be drawn with curved lines, the sweep of the curve corresponding somewhat closely to the form of the object. When these curved lines cannot be conveniently formed with one stroke the adjoined or overlapping should be as imperceptible as possible.