Working drawings take the place of lengthy explanation, either written or oral. It is by such means that the dimensions are shown, dimension being an extent in anyone direction, and are three in number, length, breadth and thickness. These dimensions apply only to solids and not to hollow objects, They apply regardless to position.

Lines, Etc., Used in Working Drawings

Working drawings show only the outlines of the object. The real shape is to be judged by the positions of the separate views and the lines connecting them. These lines tell us that certain angles, edges, and surfaces come in contact. By these means, we understand the form that will result.

The lines used arbitrarily define the things they represent. Besides the lines, certain characters are used as abbreviations, as for instance, in place of “feet” and “inches,” represents feet and represents inches. The diagram on below contains the lines used in industrial drawing.

Working Drawing of a Cube

The upper drawing shows how a drawing is laid out from which to construct a cube. In the lower drawing the result is shown. The heavy lines only are the outlines, the fine lines indicate where the cardboard or paper is to be bent, and the triangles are the’ parts to be pasted.

First draw the central horizontal line; then the four circles in a row. Then draw two horizontal lines above and below the circles. Next, draw the short center lines intersecting the horizontals, including the short lines beyond, above and below. Now draw the perpendicular lines that form the cube, and the oblique lines. To establish the extent of the latter, describe segments of circles with the same radius as the others at the points of contact of horizontal and perpendicular lines with the circles.

For exercise, make working drawings of a table, a chair, a music stand, etc.

Working drawings are those from which objects can be constructed. They are also, and properly, called mechanical drawings, industrial drawings and construction drawings. They are necessary to guide the workman in nearly every branch of industry.

A working drawing is made of two or more geometric views of the object. A geometric drawing shows an object in its simplest form; that is, having length or width, or showing but one face of the object. This can be represented on a flat surface by one drawing; then another must be made to represent the face, showing the thickness of the solid, and so on, until as many views have been made as there are dissimilar faces.

The Real Shape of the Surface cannot always be shown in these drawings, but simply the contour or outline when the surface is curved or oblique. The real shape, however, is readily understood by the position of the several views and the lines connecting them.

When we know that certain angles and edges come in contact, we are enabled to understand the form that will result. Certain conventional lines are used in working drawings, and the knowledge of their use is necessary.

List of the Lines and Explanations – Dotted lines connect different parts of different views that are in contact in the object.

Dot-and-dash lines are center lines, sometimes called construction lines. They are used when the object has a curved surface or is difficult to illustrate.

Dash lines represent invisible edges. Complete lines represent visible edges of surfaces.

In making working drawings the top view is usually placed directly over or under the front view, with corresponding points opposite. When more than two views are necessary, the side views are placed beside the front or upright, with the corresponding points exactly opposite.

Exercises in the Three Dimensions Dimensions of a Line, which is known by its length.

Show, in a drawing, the length of a line twelve inches long, drawn to the scale of three inches to the foot (J=I); that is to say, each actual foot to be represented by three inches on the drawing, and every actual inch by a quarter of an inch on the drawing.

Dimensions of a Surface, which are known by its length
and breadth.

Show, in a drawing, the length and breadth of a sheet of paper twelve inches long and six inches wide; i. e., 12″x6″. Scale, three inches to the foot; i. e., 3″=1′.

Dimensions of a Solid, the longest dimension being known by its length. the next longest by its breadth, while its shortest is known by its thickness.

Show, in a drawing, the length, breadth and thickness of a
board 12×6. Scale, 3″=1′.

Exercises in Working Drawings – Make working drawings of simple articles of furniture, like tables, chairs, bookshelves, etc. The measurements and views should be so plain that a workman would form a clear idea of the article and be able to construct one from the drawing.

Fig. 30 – This drawing is a more difficult example of the method followed In Figs. 26 and 27. The drawing is made with pencil on firm linen paper and then completed In the manner shown In Fig. 27. The accentuation, as shown by the solid black lines, may be made according to the artistic taste of the draftsman.

Exercises in Ornamental Pen Drawing, shown in Figs. B and E (Figs. 26 and 27), are much less complex than would appear at first glance. The method of producing these examples of confusion in decorative design is as follows:

Make a drawing on thin, rough, linen paper of the motif in Fig. A. Then transfer in group form-one transfer over the other.

The pencil transfers will appear as at B, only the spaces will be dark. Then outline with ink but do not cross the dark spaces. When the ink is dry erase the pencil lines and the design will appear as in B.

As a preliminary exercise to the design, Fig. E, make a pencil drawing of the unit Fig. C and outline with ink. Erase pencil lines and the unit design D will appear. The design E is a repetition of the unit D, the only difference being that when the pencil transfers from C are made care must be taken not to cross with pen lines any of the dark transfer lines.

The complicated design at the right is an example of what can be done with a cardboard curve.

The outlines of the cardboard curve, as shown on that page and reversed, were repeated several times with faint outlines. The outlines were then strengthened and accentuated untiI the accompanying design was developed. The operation is quite simple and quickly done.

Ornamental Lettering is often desirable, but it should not overshadow the main design of a book cover or poster. On the other hand, it is advisable to ornament the lettering in order to enrich the pictorial aspect of the design.

Posters may have much ornamental detail, and, as in the case of a book cover, the more gracefully the letters are drawn, the better becomes the general effect of the entire combination.

Simple Human Figures, harmoniously inclined, surrounded by a graceful and ornamental design may be added, usually make a pleasing cover. It is necessary, however, to guard against an extravagant use of ornament, which is a common fault.

Designs for Book Covers should at all times avoid complexity, and the style and quality of the embellishment should not detract from the legibility of the lettering or the prominence of the main figure or scene introduced into the design, for if this occurs the result will be a bewildering confusion.

Heavy Lines – In drawing a poster or book cover, especially in the case of the former, let the lines be heavier than in an ordinary drawing. The drawing, completed, should be held off for inspection at a distance greater than would be usual with an ordinary drawing. Little defects that would appear upon a close view will seem to disappear, whereas much that in an ordinary drawing would not appear complex would, in the latter case, seem blurred and inexpressive.

Simplicity is stronger at a distance; multiplicity of line and detail proportionately weaker.

The comic figures in Figs. 27 and 28 are given importance as a border design simply by being repeated.

The principal requirement in a design for wall-paper or oil cloth is that the edges shall match each other; that is, when the ends and sides are connected the entire design must appear connected and continuous. Therefore, the design must be made so that if it is repeated side by side. and end for end, a continuous, harmonious pattern will be observed.

In the designs shown in Fig. 22 each unit is supposed to be the full width of a strip of wall-paper or oilcloth. They are drawn in conformity with the requirement noted. The height may be greater or less than the width, but the sides and ends must conform to the rule.

A Wall-Paper Design

The casual observer would not be apt to guess that the design in Fig. 24 was based on the dotted line units in A, Fig. 23. placed in their regular order, aided by the oblique, horizontal and vertical lines of the diagram. Yet that is the manner in which the design is made. It will be interesting to see how readily the design B may be copied by resorting to the method of duplicating a drawing as shown in the chapter on Triangulation.

Corners and Borders – In drawing corners and borders, guide lines must be made, especially parallel lines for the borders, so that the design will show evenly and straight, or in proper curves, according to the design used.

Weaving Units – A good method for practice is to make tracings of various simple units of ornamental design, weaving them by repetition into various compositions, and varying the component parts according to the judgment of the student, These tracings should be preserved for future use in other designs.

Interspersing Units – The various geometrical and ornamental figures shown may be broken, or separated, by interspersing flowers or units, such as leaves, or almost any of the conventional forms shown in this and other lessons.

Fig. 14-1 – A geometrical rosette or medallion, drawn with
a compass, except the external cog-like projections.

Fig. 14-2 – A conventionalized daisy in medallion form. Draw the circles with compass; the rest free hand. If pen and ink, sketch details with very light pencil lines. For exercise draw a border containing four rosettes, alternated or separated by a circle about one-fourth the diameter of the rosette.

Fig. 15 is not intended as a copy for a single rosette, but for eight separate ones; each of the eight sections to be repeated eight times, when the circle will be filled. The units may be adopted also for border designs.

Historic Ornament

Individuality in ornament has been characteristic of most nations, even among the barbaric. Each nation seems to have adopted some unit or series of units and adapted them so repeatedly that they have derived a claim to some specific form of ornament. When these designs have passed down the ages they have been accepted as the historical ornament appertaining to the respective nations.

The greatest historic styles of the ancients are the Egyptian, Greek and Roman.

Of the Middle Ages there are the Byzantine, Romanesque (founded on the .later forms of the Roman ornament and approaching the Gothic), Saracenic and Gothic.

The modern styles which, however, included those prevailing for several centuries past (since 15th century) are usually termed Renaissance, meaning literally, new birth, or the revival of anything which has been extinct or in decay. Previous to the Renaissance there had been a tendency to imitate in decoration the Byzantine and Gothic.

The revival of Roman and Grecian art was called the Renaissance. Among the ancient styles are included, but as secondary, the Assyrian and Persian styles. There is today a tendency toward their revival.

The Oriental styles are the Persian, (East) Indian, Chinese and Japanese.

Graceful lines running in the same general direction is all that is aimed at in Figs. 19, 20 and 21. The shading is to be added, with the same display of quick lines flowing along the same curves.

To make a rosette with four or eight units or sections, as shown in Fig. D. Draw one-eighth of the entire design, as shown in Fig. A. Reverse a, add b. in Fig. B. forming one-fourth of the rosette. Reverse this quarter, as shown in Fig. C. thus forming half of the design. Reverse this once more and the design is compete, as shown.

If an eight-point rosette is desired add points as shown in heavy lines in Fig. D. The reversing of the sections may be done by any of the following three methods:

1. Freehand

2. By folding according to the horizontal, vertical and oblique dotted lines in Fig. A. Directions for this will be found in the chapter on Paper Cutting and Folding.

3. By means of tracings of the obverse and the reverse (Fig. B), repeated with the aid of the stylus or other means of offsetting, as described in the posts on Tracing and Transferring.

To Make a six or twelve-pointed rosette or medallion follow the rule for dividing the circle into six parts according to directions for making a hexagon in the chapter on Geometrical Forms.

Draw one unit of design and repeat according to directions for making the four or eight-pointed rosette.

The four diagrams A, B, C and D in Fig. 13 are supposed to be one drawing, but are shown as separate drawings in order to illustrate the successive steps for developing the rosette, as shown in Fig. D. The added six points A, A, A. A, A, A, need be made only if a twelve-point rosette is desired.

XX, 0000 correspond to the letters in the diagram in the posts on Geometrical Forms.

The value of these exercises consists largely in fostering the inventive faculty of the child, in bringing out his individual ingenuity. The teacher should let the pupil depend on his own imagination entirely, afterwards suggesting improvements and pointing out the most palpable errors.

The Subjects - The stories illustrated may be original, or from suggestions offered by simple nursery tales and rhymes. For instance:

John flew a kite, but the wind was so strong that the string broke and the kite fell towards the ground. But it never reached the ground. It was caught in a tree and stayed there for a long time, so long, indeed, that there was nothing left of the kite except a few rotting sticks. Did John cry? No, he went home and made another kite.

To illustrate this, one or more pictures may be made. Examples: A boy flying a kite. The kite falling (upside-down). The kite lodged in a tree.

Reverse the Operation – For instance, draw a picture and write a little story about it.

As for example: A picture of a bird feeding a little bird in a nest. The story: “One day a bird fed its little one and then flew away to get another meal, but the mother bird never came back. A bad boy threw a stone at it just as it was picking up a nice little worm for the birdling’s luncheon. Wouldn’t the bad little boy feel sorry if he knew that the little bird in the nest starved to death because its mother never came back?”

Many of the Mother Goose Melodies provide easy, yet interesting, material for simple illustrations, thus:

MOTHER GOOSE MELODIES SIMPLY ILLUSTRATED

Anniversaries – On holidays, national anniversaries and other seasonable occasions, or rather for some days preceding them, it is well to direct the pupil’s energies toward the symbols and pictures by which these events and persons are commemorated.

New Year’s Day suggests Father Time, his scythe and hour glass. The New Year itself, as portrayed by a child, illustrating the new born year with the date thereof made prominent. Good resolutions – someone writing in a diary, etc.

February presents Washington’s and Lincoln’s birthdays as subjects, besides St. Valentine’s day. Events in the Jives of the two great patriots are good subjects, or simply their portraits surmounted by or surmounting, for instance, a hatchet and a cherry tree trunk, or a rail fence or broken shackles, made into a frame – as the case may be.

SEPTEMBER – Draw Autumn flowers, such as the golden-rod, sunflower, and others found in your locality, grasses, grains, bushes and trees.

OCTOBER – Draw fruits, Autumn leaves, pumpkins and ‘Jack-o’ lanterns.

NOVEMBER – Draw objects suggested by Thanksgiving – The May flower. Indians. wigwams, turkeys and corn.

DECEMBER – Subjects suggested by Christmas, such as Christmas trees, stars, holly, Santa Claus and reindeer, toys of all kinds.

JANUARY – Eskimo huts, snow forts, snow men, snow crystals, skating and coasting.

FEBRUARY – Subjects suggested by Lincoln’s and Washington’s birthdays and Valentine Day. .

MARCH – Draw kites. windmills, boats and pussy-willows.

APRIL – Draw buds and twigs, tulips and other early Spring flowers, umbrellas & ducks.

MAY – Draw baskets, birds and their nests and eggs, trees, flowers and simple landscapes.

JUNE – Draw flowers, vacation scenes, landscapes.

The Months – The illustration below offers a suggestion for each month of the year. The designs are intended for those who are well advanced as well as for beginners. The latter may use them as copies, while the former may find in them bases for improvement in form and idea.

Here are three suggestions for simple story pictures:

MEMORY DRAWING

Practice drawing from memory. Take a single figure, a simple subject, and, having drawn it two or three times from the original, lay both aside and then, by no aid except that of your memory, draw the object once more. Then compare it with the original and see how near it you have made the sketch. This is an interesting as well as a practically helpful exercise.

CORRECTING ERRORS

The pupil will be benefited if he will frequently criticize his own work from his own viewpoint. Thus only is improvement possible.

It is a mistake to suppose that it is necessary to have separate instructions for drawing each form or even each group of forms. Certain fixed niles govern drawing, and, once these are mastered, they can be applied to almost anything that can be represented by pen, pencil or brush.

Pen-drawing, the study of perspective, composition, light and shade, nature sketching, charcoal and crayon work, and other studies may be taken in accordance with the provisions of the state course of study.