Fig. 14-1 – A geometrical rosette or medallion, drawn with
a compass, except the external cog-like projections.

Fig. 14-2 – A conventionalized daisy in medallion form. Draw the circles with compass; the rest free hand. If pen and ink, sketch details with very light pencil lines. For exercise draw a border containing four rosettes, alternated or separated by a circle about one-fourth the diameter of the rosette.

Fig. 15 is not intended as a copy for a single rosette, but for eight separate ones; each of the eight sections to be repeated eight times, when the circle will be filled. The units may be adopted also for border designs.

Historic Ornament

Individuality in ornament has been characteristic of most nations, even among the barbaric. Each nation seems to have adopted some unit or series of units and adapted them so repeatedly that they have derived a claim to some specific form of ornament. When these designs have passed down the ages they have been accepted as the historical ornament appertaining to the respective nations.

The greatest historic styles of the ancients are the Egyptian, Greek and Roman.

Of the Middle Ages there are the Byzantine, Romanesque (founded on the .later forms of the Roman ornament and approaching the Gothic), Saracenic and Gothic.

The modern styles which, however, included those prevailing for several centuries past (since 15th century) are usually termed Renaissance, meaning literally, new birth, or the revival of anything which has been extinct or in decay. Previous to the Renaissance there had been a tendency to imitate in decoration the Byzantine and Gothic.

The revival of Roman and Grecian art was called the Renaissance. Among the ancient styles are included, but as secondary, the Assyrian and Persian styles. There is today a tendency toward their revival.

The Oriental styles are the Persian, (East) Indian, Chinese and Japanese.

Graceful lines running in the same general direction is all that is aimed at in Figs. 19, 20 and 21. The shading is to be added, with the same display of quick lines flowing along the same curves.

Cut out of cardboard or oil stencil board curved shapes similar to that herewith shown. They are useful in making designs where there is frequent repetition of simple curved lines. The complicated looking design on page 298 is an example of what can be done with a curve such as the one on this page.

Equilibrium and stability, commonplace in their aspect though they may seem, play important parts in the science of ornamental design. Solidity is a principle of art; strength does not exclude elegance.

Duplication of Design – When making a design in which the details are frequently duplicated. Draw each minor detail and then make a tracing with a sharp-pointed soft pencil; redraw the lines on the other side of the tracing paper, and with a stylus or whatever hard substance is used to make the offset rub briskly on the side opposite the last traced design.

To duplicate the design wherever it is to be placed repeat each part of the design as often as necessary to produce the entire plan of ornament.

In making a frame-like design make corner-pieces first and join to whatever border may be selected.

Retracing Necessary – When each “repeat” is to be made frequently, it will be necessary to retrace (over the same lines) several times, because a portion of the graphite, of which the pencil lead is composed, is transferred to the paper beneath at each offset. After three or four offsets, the transfers thus made will become too dim to act as guides. The plan for transferring as described in the chapter on Tracing and Transferring can be used in these exercises.

Aids for Imagination – Draw curves similar to the above and add floral and decorative forms as suggested below, The intention of this exercise is to arouse the inventive faculties of the pupil. These devices may be drawn on the blackboard and the pupils requested to make totally different curves in addition. The curves should be all drawn separately and the decorations added afterward.

For the purpose of making both halves of a design precisely alike fold a thin piece of paper and on one side draw half of the design. Then fold again and by rubbing briskly on the back of the paper with any hard substance, the design will even appear sufficiently legible to be penciled over. It can then in turn be transferred to paper that is not creased.

The method is shown in Fig. 8. The heavy lines represent the half first drawn, while the dotted lines show the folds and transfer. If the subject is a wreath an initial may be added. In the upper right-hand corner is shown half of a “B” started in this manner.

Fold a piece of paper in the middle (Fig. 9). Draw half a butterfly on one side of the fold; transfer it. Pencil the transfer. A very pretty and interesting variation of this exercise consists in using colored chalks instead of pencil, and then intensifying the transfer.

Take a piece of drawing paper about four inches square and fold it four times, according to the straight dotted lines in Fig. 10. Fold towards you, and open the paper after each folding. In one of the spaces, as at A, draw a design similar to the one shown. Crease and make a transfer, as at B. Pencil the transferred line. Fold at Cc.

Transfer the quarter design to the space E. Pencil as before, fold at DD and transfer to FFFF. Then pencil the transfer. Medallions can be drawn in a like manner by making the outside of the design follow an eighth of a circle, as at G.

The designs “e” and “f” are composed principally of the units a, b, c and d transferred, reversed, inverted and repeated somewhat according to the methods described in the chapter on Pastel-Stenciling. For exercise draw the same units or others, and construct other designs in a similar manner.

It is advisable to make tracings of both front and back of each unit. If the face of a tracing is rubbed for the purpose of transferring lines that are on the other side, the lines on the face will no longer transfer.

For general use as a tracing point or stylus, the 6H pencil is very good.

Tracing Transferred – The tracing will now be found to be more or less faintly transferred to the pen-paper. If necessary, the transferred tracing may be touched up here and. there, where a greater definition seems necessary to guide the pen.

Preserve Tracings – The tracing paper after use need no. be discarded, for it may be used several times, although after each transfer the “offset” will become more and more dim. Greater pressure is required then, and the lines on the tracing paper may have to be strengthened. By preserving tracings, subsequent impressions become available in case the first drawing in pen-and-ink is unsatisfactory, or in case one desires to work up the same theme in a different style of treatment.

Transfer from Opaque Paper – Whenever necessary to make a transfer from a piece of paper that is not transparent, the reverse drawing (the lines which make the offset) can be made by placing the paper against a window pane, which will cause the paper to appear transparent, when the lines may be traced.

Interesting and Practical Experiment – When it is necessary to make the transfer in contact with any certain part of the drawing this can be accomplished by placing the paper near the desired place and then rapidly lifting and lowering the transfer until the part on the transfer and the part on the drawing underneath appear as one. The phenomenon is similar to the principle on which moving pictures are based.

To illustrate the experiment make the drawing A in Fig. I.
Then another drawing B, which place over A. Then move up and down very quickly, as indicated in Fig. 2. in the directions as shown by the arrows E and F. Bring C towards you from D sufficiently far that the eye may see A as well as B. If moved with sufficient speed, A and B will appear as they do at the left of Fig. 3.

Offset Sheets – necessity frequently arises for transferring outlines, etc., from one surface to another, as, for instance, from a pencil drawing on absorbent paper to a less absorbent paper suitable for pen drawings. For such a purpose, a thin sheet of firm paper with a surface that is not too smooth should be provided. This sheet can be made into fairly permanent transfer-paper by spreading over one side with any dry pigment, such as powdered indigo, red chalk, or the scrapings from the point of a pencil.

Another way is by a rubbing movement of the side of a soft pencil of any color. The entire surface of the paper should be covered. Whichever method is used, the surface should be blended by “stumping” or rubbing gently with the finger or a soft rag. Place this prepared paper with the colored side down on the blank paper that is to receive the copy. Over the former place the drawings from which the lines are to be transferred. Next take a stylus or sharp pointed hard pencil-if a pencil, the harder the better-and trace over the lines that are to be repeated or transferred on the white paper below.

The result will be a faint outline that can be touched up if required with a pencil, or the picture may be completed at once with pen and ink. The “offset sheet,” as it is called, may be preserved for frequent future use. Tracing paper treated in the same way may be used. Tracing paper is useful in many ways, but its general use is not to be recommended for the pupil. There are times, however, when tracing paper is a great help.

Pencil Transfers - When a pencil drawing has been made that one wishes to preserve and also to reproduce practically line for line, in pen and ink, the use of tracing paper is advisable in order to transfer the outlines of the pencil drawing onto the paper on which the pen drawing is to be made. To do this proceed as follows:

Take a piece of tracing paper (in lieu of the regular kind, any thin, firm, transparent paper that is not oily will answer the purpose). With a finely-pointed rather soft pencil trace the outlines of the pencil drawing.

Then lay the tracing paper on another sheet of white paper, with the pencil lines of the tracing paper on the under side. Then again draw the lines on the tracing paper, but on the side opposite to those made before. The lines are now drawn on both sides of the tracing paper. Now place it on the paper on which the pen drawing is to be made with the lines that were last drawn underneath; that is, they should be in contact with the pen drawing paper.

The tracing paper should now be briskly rubbed on the upper surface with the side of a stylus or stiff, flat-surfaced ivory or bone paper cutter. The thumb nail is sometimes used for this purpose, but its use should be discouraged, as it wears away the nail very quickly.

Small logs or branches of trees cut into suitable lengths make excellent models. The length of each piece may vary from one to two times the diameter. Saw out sections as shown in Fig. 2; that is, cut away one. eighth, one-quarter, one-third or one-half of four logs, as in A, B, C, D. Fig. I is made to show that the same methods are used for drawing cubes, prisms and other square-shaped
objects as for curved ones. The perspective principle is the same for all.
The logs may be drawn in various positions, as vertical, horizontal, receding and right and left receding cylinders.

Substitute for Pencil Compass

Take a strip of cardboard about 1 x 4 inches in size. Prick holes at intervals of 1/4 inch along the middle of its length. Stick pin through cardboard and drawing paper into the drawing board.

Place point of pencil through any of the holes and circles are easily made. The diagram explains its construction and use.

To Make an Octagon – Extend the lines from each E to the center at A (Fig. 2). Now make eight lines as shown by the dotted line X to F, which gives one section of an octagon.

To Make an Equilateral Triangle – A triangle having all sides of an equal length-draw a line GG parallel to XX at the top of the circle. Extend lines from the center A through the OO’s (as produced in Fig. 2) to the line GG, and an equilateral is shown in the heavy lines as a result.

Pentagon – To construct a pentagon, draw parts of three circles as A A, 13 13 and C C, as in Fig. I. Next draw the

vertical line D D. Then the oblique lines E E and 17 F. From the intersection of line E E at upper part of circular line C C describe segment of circle J. On the same drawing (as in Fig. 2) now construct the pentagon as shown by the heavy lines G, H, I and J.

Another Pentagon – Method of drawing a pentagon by first locating the points required to make a decagon: Describe a circle as at A. Then half a circle as shown by dotted lines (same radius as large circle). Then the vertical line; next the dotted horizontal line. Now describe small circle; now the lower horizontal line. Extend a line from the intersection of the vertical line and the top of the small circle, thence to its intersection with the dotted horizontal line.

Now describe a segment of a circle, starting at intersection of oblique line
and lower horizontal line, and touching the small circle. The black dots on the oblique line indicate a distance that is the tenth part of a decagon, as shown in C and B. Use alternate spaces to form a pentagon, as at 13, or five-pointed star at C. This exercise is not so wearisome as it looks.

How to Draw Triangles, Squares, Pentagons, Hexagons and Other Multi-Faced and Multi-Pointed Forms

Equilateral Triangle – To make an equilateral triangle within a circle. Describe a circle, Fig. A. Without changing the radius place the point of the compass at each of the black dots, starting at the dot Y (at top of circle) and intersect the circle. The formation of the triangle is shown by the dotted lines.

Fig. B shows a simpler manner of making an equilateral triangle. Start at any of the dots, say, dot A, and describe a segment of a circle. At any point, as at dot B, with the compass at the same radius, intersect the first segment. At intersection C place point of compass and intersect the other curves as at Band A. Lines drawn from A to B, B to C, and C to A, as shown in dotted lines, will form the triangle.

Fig. C. To make a hexagon or six-pointed star. Describe a circle. From the point A at the circumference, with a compass (radius remaining the same) intersect the circumference at B. Repeat with C, D, and so forth, until A is intersected.

Lines drawn as shown in dotted lines from A to Band B to C, if continued to D, E, and so forth, will make a hexagon.

For a six-pointed star draw lines as in dotted lines G, H and 1.

For dividing the hexagon into sections, as for rosettes, etc., divide the circumference as for the hexagon or star and project lines as shown in the sample dotted line from E to K. thus to make the six divisions of the drawing.

To Draw a Square – To make an absolutely accurate quadrangle proceed as follows:

Describe a circle as in Fig. I. Bisect it through its center at A to XX. Make a segment of an arc, CC, by placing the point of the compass at X at the left. The line BB is made: the same way from X at the right. A vertical line prolonged through the circle from the intersection of the lines BB and CC and intersecting the horizontal line at A, and continued to the base of the circle, completes four right angles.

On the same drawing (Figs. I and 2 being in reality a single. drawing, but, for the sake of plainness, is made in two diagrams) describe arcs of circles of the same size or circumference, by placing the point of the compass at each X. The segments meet or intersect at EEEE. They also meet the circumference of the original circle at 0000, but this has nothing to do with making the quadrangle or square. Now extend four lines from each E to the other and they will touch the circle at each X. A perfect square is formed by these four lines.

Other Forms Produced by This Operation To Make a Hexagon.

Draw lines as shown at the left of the diagram (Fig. 2) (starting from below) from 0, X, 0, 0, in the dotted lines, proceeding of course all the way around.

Begin by drawing the circles, ovals, oblongs and triangles in Fig. 8. Now let the pupil base the construction of objects along these lines as in Fig. 9. It is not necessary to adhere very closely to the outlines as originally demarked.

In Fig. 11 the circle, oval, square, oblong and triangle in Fig. 10 are all introduced into a single picture. Request the pupil to make another drawing in which these forms are indicated. Tell him that the oblong may indicate the body of a cart; the circle, one of the wheels; the square, a box on the cart; the oval, a bag of flour on the box. The triangle may show the angle of the roof of the house.

Triangulation in Design and Composition

The examples in Fig 13 show the application of triangles as guides to the drawing of various objects.

In Fig. 14 are given varied examples of the application of triangulation in design and composition. The designs do not need to adhere closely to the outlines of the triangles.

The sphere, the cube, the cylinder, the square prism, the hemisphere and the right-angled triangulared prism. These may be considered in the following order:

1. The surfaces and faces.
2. The edges.
3. The corners.

The surface is the outside of any object.

In the case of the cube, for instance, we find the surface limited and broken up by edges and faces. The face is a limited part of a surface. An edge is formed by the meeting of two faces.

When passing the fingers over the surface of one of the solids, the pupil discovers decided differences. He notes a plain or flat surface, a curved surface and a round surface. He finds that all are not the same shape, and learns that
Edges may be curved or straight.

Corners will be noted, as well as the difference in shape, if he is shown how to study them. Having familiarized himself by a study of each, it is well for the pupil to take the sphere and cube together, in order that he may observe their resemblances and their differences. Explain to him carefully the meaning of dimension.

Dimension is an extent in one direction.

Considered as to surfaces, their differences are notable. The surface of the sphere is curved equally in all its parts, while the cube’s surface has six equal plane faces.

Two of these six faces coming in contact form an edge, which is the subject of a second topic in the study of solids.

While the cube has twelve edges, the sphere has none.

As to Corners – The sphere has none; there can be no corners where there are no edges. The cube has eight corners.

Three or more faces must come in contact to form a corner. The angles of the plane faces of a cube are right angles, therefore on each cube twenty-four right angles are found.

Cylinder and Square Prism – Considered as a whole, the points of resemblance are these: The dimensions are the same in each.

As to Surface and Faces – The cylinder has both curved and plane surfaces; a square prism has only plane surfaces.

Considered as to their edges, the cylinder has curved edges; the square prism, straight edges. Considered as to corners, the square prism has the same number of corners as the cube; the cylinder has no corners.

Two cubes will make one square prism.
Faces are parallel to each other when they extend in the same direction.

Faces are perpendicular when they are at right angles to each other. A square corner would be formed by the intersection of three.

Faces are oblique to each other when they form angles other than right angles.

The solids are considered, first, as “wholes”; second, as “to surfaces and faces,” and, third, “as to edges.”

An edge is formed by the meeting of two faces.

Edges may be curved or straight. The surface of the sphere is curved equally in all parts, while the surface of the cube is composed of six equal plane faces. When any two of these faces come in contact an edge is formed.

A profile limits the part that we see of any round or curved surface. Profiles and edges limit and give visible shape to the faces and parts of faces.