Permit Use of Guide Lines – Among the first exercises in drawing, practically the same principles may be applied that are applicable to the teaching of penmanship. Guide lines should be permitted; that is, simple lines constructed along the horizontal and oblique sides. The exercises indicated at the beginning of each row of figures should be made the subject of a single lesson.

The lines indicated at the right of each row should be added as the pupil advances; for instance, let the pupil draw, say, a hundred straight, oblique lines, until he becomes proficient in their use. Follow with the reverse and duplicated lines in the top row, After that let him draw the simple curves at the left of the second row a great many times before he progresses to the added and duplicated, triplicated and quadrupled curves at the right.

Next let him draw repeatedly the compound curves at the left in the third and fourth rows. before proceeding to the more complex additions at the right.

After the pupil has become proficient with the exercises in Fig 6, let him draw the curves and ornamental devices in Fig 7.

Each of the designs in Fig 8 is enclosed in a rectangle of the same dimensions. There are three sets of horizontal lines, in turn bisected by vertical lines. Three sets of five totally different designs are based on these lines. Let them serve as an exercise by which they are copied as herewith given.

When the pupils have made further progress let them make variations from these, using the same kind of guide lines, but with the endeavor to make new and original designs.

Snow crystals – Fig 9 shows four snow crystals greatly enlarged. They are formed by hexagons, or two equilateral triangles with apexes in opposition. To draw them by means of the latter proceed as in Fig 10. Draw the horizontal line a. Bisect it as at b. Each oblique line in c equals the horizontal line a. Describe another triangle inverted as at d. Then proceed to construct the crystals on the lines of the triangles as shown in Fig 11.

Decoration relates to the production of beauty in art, in which the first principle to be considered is symmetry – the equal balance of two halves. The second principle is repetition.

Repetition may be considered as Simple, when the same unit is used repeatedly.

As Alternate, when two units are used alternately.

As Combined, when several units (each one different) are
used.

Simple repetition, Alternate repetition and Combined repetition are seen in Fig. 2. Further complication appears in Fig. 3.

Conventional Design

To conventionalize means to represent by symbol of some exact preconceived outline, rather than by an attempt to duplicate resemblance to a natural object. To conventionalize, for instance, is to produce an ornamental design of such a character that it may be made up of several different integral parts, each of which is copied from some natural object, such as a leaf or flower, but which has been formalized into the typical rather than the correct representation of the original.

Or, to give another instance, it may be a leaf made to conform to some geometrical figure, such as the maple leaf drawn within the confines of a hexagon.

Even in pictorial art, liberties are taken with nature to overcome the limitations of human efforts to make certain visible impressions by pictorial means.

Ornament – In the ornamental designs of the Greeks and the Romans, Repetition and Alternation were the chief resources.

Modern ornamenters added Intersection, which means relieving Repetition and Alternation at intervals with additional forms or group of forms, and then continuing as before.

Complication also has been added. In decorative design, Complication is a term which differs somewhat from the – ordinary meaning. It is here used to distinguish the results produced from the contact, interlacing of the various forms comprising the whole.

Confusion is the term of another element that has a valued place in modern decoration. Confusion, usually the synonym of disorder, when applied to decorative art is used in giving contrast and even harmony to the general composition. The ornamentist in employing Confusion gains the aid of every possible object, whose curves or symmetrical lines appeal to his eye. He will tints group in one design the most incongruous figures, all of which give zest and life to an otherwise purely mechanical design.

Confusion in designing ornament is the artist’s license. The sculptor requires Confusion’s aid, when he fills his pedestals, niches, etc., with ornaments imitated, at random it would almost seem, from the vegetable and animal world.

Ruled Lines for Lettering – In making Roman letters, the pupil should be guided by ruled lines just as he is guided ill making script. Possibly there will come a time, as in writing, when the use of guide lines for lettering may be discontinued, but in the meantime it would be just as absurd to teach a child to learn to write without ruled lines as to require him to draw without their aid.

Guide Lines Necessary – For the purpose of making guide lines for lettering the use of the straight edge should be freely permitted, The straight edge may be a ruler, a pencil, a piece of cardboard or anything that may be used for the purpose, Ruling short, straight lines for pencil or ink, by means of the simple contrivance described in Fig. 1 will be found useful.

Take a new round pencil – the thicker the better – and around each end roll narrow strips of pasted paper about three-eighths of an inch in width and about 10 inches in length, the latter depending on the thickness of the paper used. The result should be about a thirty-second of an inch in thickness – just enough to keep the body of the pencil away from the paper on which it is used.

Roll it Along – When rolled along gently on the surface of the paper to be used for the drawing, the pencil will be propelled in a straight direction instead of sliding from side to side, straight as is usually the case when a pencil is used as a edge and the endeavor is to make parallel lines.

The Gothic alphabet drawn by aid of guide lines. Note the vertical lines as guides to symmetry in. forming some of the curved letters. Note that the upper divisions of letters are smaller than the lower. They are made so as to prevent their having a top-heavy appearance. Hold the alphabet upside down. Look at the letters B, E, H, K and S and see how top-heavy they appear when thus seen.

I can not overemphasize the value of guidelines. Their use should be repeated at intervals throughout the entire course of study. The author of this work has never stopped using them.

Adaptation of Comic Figures – Many ordinary-looking things, by repetition and reversing, become good subjects for ornamental design. For instance, the comic policeman in the chapter on comic drawing is well adapted for a design for the cover of some book of humor.

Make free-hand drawings of cylinders in various positions, especially one that will show the visible end of a cylinder appearing nearly as a straight line (as in A in the accompanying illustration) and the invisible end (B) appearing as an ellipse, the width depending upon the length of the cylinder – the longer the cylinder, the wider the ellipse.

Draw a box from the model. Place it directly in front of the eye, but above or below it. Measure the back edge of the top and compare it with the front edge. Note that the back edge will be much shorter. Note that the two side lines will converge to meet the shorter lines. Place the box to one side, so that one side will be seen. Note the apparent shortness of the further (vertical) edge of the side. (See also Figs. 16 and 17, chapter on Perspective.)

LEARN TO SEE

That is the secret of nearly all success in art work. To see. To see accurately, the outline, the phase of light and shade, the quantities, qualities and gradations of color. That is all. It must be learned by degrees.
The frequently heard question, “Can I learn to draw pictures?” should unhesitatingly be answered in the affirmative. “Can you tell me how long it will take?” should be answered in the negative.

To learn to draw well means application, patience, courage and confidence. And it means having those qualities more than the possession of so-called talent or even genius.

Certain rules may be laid down but there is that which the pupil must do himself – he must see. The art of seeing, that’s it.

Begin at the bottom. A very large proportion of the failures among drawing students is due to a tendency to slight the early exercises. They want to start right out with finished drawings of an ambitious character.

Keep to simple subjects drawn with simple lines. Avoid elaboration and complication.
Practice line economy.

Note – The seeker for further instruction on the subject of fore
shortening is advised to study and become familiar with the laws of perspective, and to go to nature for the true aspects of visible form.

To teach how to foreshorten, entirely as a separate proposition, is difficult. Definitions of the word itself are somewhat vague. “Foreshorten – to represent figures as they appear to the eye when seen obliquely”; “to represent objects in accordance with the laws of perspective” ; “the art of diminishing the entire length of an object when viewed obliquely.”

“Foreshortening is to draw what we don’t see,” explained an exasperated art student on being examined as to his knowledge of certain rules of drawing. One can sympathize with him if not agree with his definition.

Knowledge of the rudiments of perspective gives one a better conception of the proper manner to foreshorten an object, animate or otherwise, than any amount of special instruction on the subject. Foreshortening is one branch of the. study of the elementary laws of perspective.

Much of what we see in nature is foreshortened. With the exception of the lines at right angles with the line of vision, all dimensions appear foreshortened. Unless one were looking through a hole in the ceiling, the table and practically every article in a room would appear foreshortened.

Even the pictures on the wall, if above the level of the eye, are seen foreshortened. This will not be the case if they are tilted in such a way that their surfaces are at right angles to the line of vision.
The pupil may be able to draw in perspective, according to instruction, a hemisphere and a cylinder lying on their sides and yet not realize that the same instruction applied to any object offering a round plane surface, as its principal problem for the moment, is of equal value – a lemon for instance.

Having drawn a hemisphere, a cylinder and a lemon, the same pupil may ask, “How do you draw the two wheels of a cart?” The answer is: By the same rules as one draws the two planes of a cylinder lying on its side.

The pupil, having mastered these, comes back inquiring how to foreshorten a leaf.

Now, the best way to foreshorten a leaf is to get one, place it in the desired position and draw it from life. The experience tints gained will enable the pupil subsequently to draw the leaf from memory.

All these objects are foreshortened. Practice foreshortening of leaves or other familiar objects from the objects themselves. These examples are only suggestions.

Knowledge of how to draw any part of the human figure in a foreshortened position can be gained scarcely in any other way than from nature – or through the experience of others, by copying.

The head of a person bowed forward or back is seen ill a foreshortened position and should be considered as a circle drawn in perspective. The human arm even bears a resemblance to some geometrical figure, and when foreshortened must be considered as having some relative form geometrically.

Portions of the human hand and even the fingers when seen in foreshortened positions may be considered in the aspect of circles, ovals or cylinders drawn in perspective. The left hand as a model affords splendid exercise.

Take your left hand as a model. Draw the foreshortened views of it as suggested in Fig. 2. See how the rule shown in Fig. 3, regarding horizontal circles, is carried out in nature.

Fig. 33, Exercise in Perspective – Draw a picture in which the main perspective problem involved is the horizon line.

Fig. 34, Exercise in Perspective – Draw a picture in which the main perspective problem involved is the point of sight.

Fig. 35, Exercise in Perspective – Draw a picture in which the main perspective problem involved consists of the horizon line and two vanishing points.

Figures in Perspective – Atmospheric
The first object in a drawing such as a diminishing file of police (see Fig. 36) or a row of trees (see Fig. 37) should contain the most detail, the last, far distant, need be merely suggested.

The eye is attracted by the first few figures and
does not by ordinary inspection of a picture detect the absence of minute details in the distance. Indeed, to draw each figure with the same care as given to the first would detract from the atmospheric perspective, that in a picture, by comparative size and quantity of detail, suggests distance.

Drawing Buildings
Before finishing a drawing containing features, make sure that the upright lines of plumb.

The pupil as he advances in the study of perspective should have this rule firmly impressed on his mind: The lines drawn from the -point of station to the two vanishing points should always form a right angle (90°). (See Fig. 29.)

However the point of station is shifted, the angle remains the same. Thus, in Fig. 30, the point of station is moved to the left, but the angle referred to remains the same. For this reason, if the point of station is established and also one of the vanishing points, the other vanishing point will be at a point on the horizon touched by a line at right angles from a line drawn between the first two points mentioned. Thus, in Fig. 30, A is one vanishing point, and B the point of station; now, a line drawn at right angles from A to B touches the horizon line at C, and is therefore the proper spot for the second vanishing point.

Posts, Etc., in Relative Distances Apart – We determine the relative distances and widths of a series of houses, posts, windows, tiles or other objects in perspective in this manner. We will suppose that instead of one house, as seen in Fig. 30, we wish to draw five houses – four added to the left of the house mentioned.

Proceed thus: First copy Fig. 30, then describe a vertical line from the vanishing point at the left to a point where it meets a line drawn horizontally to the left from the point of station. From this meeting point, describe a line to the corner of the house at A.

Where this line intersects the base line at B is the place to project an upright line – the left side of the second house. A line from C in a similar manner gives the side for the third house at D; E to F, the fourth house, and G to H the fifth and last.

Perspective of a Mosaic Floor - Fig. 32 shows how a mosaic floor may easily be put into perspective with sufficient accuracy for illustrative purposes. The lines marked A are first extended to the vanishing point B; next, the line C is described. Lines D are now carried through wherever line C intersects lines A. The spaces thus formed may be again further divided as here suggested or in accordance with any other arrangement or design.

The “Horizon” the Most Important Line

The word “horizon” is used to denote where the earth apparently meets the sky. This is not to be taken literally, for one might be making a drawing in a cellar, or even in a coal mine, where, not alone would the sky be unseen, but be far above the level of the beholder. In such cases, the “horizon” would be the line level and opposite the artist’s station point; that is to say, at a line and level with the eye of the artist, no matter where he happened to be. If he were sitting down, instead of standing, his particular “horizon” would be lower than if he were making the drawing in a standing position.

Above all rules in perspective, the one to be ineradicably recorded on the mind more than all others is this: All receding lines above the horizon descend, and all lines below the horizon ascend to it.
In landscape drawing, to retain proportions in human figures that appear in the background, block out a figure in the near foreground and then project lines to the proper vanishing points from that figure. The figure in the first place must be made in proper proportions by comparison with some other object in the foreground. Then place the background figure in the space so projected.

Perspective – We know now that lines receding from the eye appear to meet at the horizon, the lines above the point of sight going down to the horizon, those below rising to it. This appearance is in line with the rule of perspective which says: A level line below the eye when not parallel to it, must be drawn upward from its nearest point, .and, inversely, similar lines above the eye must be drawn downward.

To illustrate the matter practically, one has only to step into the middle of the street. Look along the lines of the curbstone, the lower lines of the houses, the windows and the lines of the roofs. Then, by holding a pencil parallel to one’s eyes, but about a foot away from them, it will be found that the lines which are above the eye run down to some point on a line level with the eye and that the lines below run up, but meet or tend to meet at the same point.

For further purposes of illustration, let us return to our beach by the sea. Let us suppose that there are three little huts there, a few feet apart and nearly on a line with each other.

Stand in front of one of them and you will see nothing of its sides. The sides of the others will be visible, but with the lines of the boards converging to a vanishing point, which is also the point of sight, in the center of the middle hut. Now walk away to the left of the huts and you may observe that all the lines of the sides that faced you before recede to a vanishing point within the picture. On the other hand, the sides that before receded from your line of. vision now are almost facing you. (Fig. 26.)

Let us suppose that the tide has come and gone and taken the little huts a few feet out to sea. The plane diagram (Fig. 27) shows where they were carried. Looking at them now they appear as in Fig. 28. They are no longer parallel, but they are on a common level; therefore, they have the same horizon line; the line of vision is the same for each, but each has its individual vanishing point. The two huts at the right and the left each have different vanishing points.

The drawings of the three huts clearly explain that, although each one has its own vanishing point, C having the point of sight as its only vanishing point, nevertheless, lines described from each pair of points to D, the point of station, form a right angle. The lines referred to are drawn in varying styles in order to show the angles more plainly. The hut on the left with single lines, the hut in the middle with dotted lines, and the hut on the right with double lines.

Additional Elementary Rules

A right line is a perfectly straight line in a position or direction. Parallel lines are lines which are the same distance from each other throughout their length, whether straight or curved.

A horizontal line is one which is parallel to the earth’s surface or the sea level.

A vertical line is a perfectly upright one, pointing to the vertex or
zenith and to the center of the earth.

A perpendicular line is a line at right angles to any other straight line, but is not necessarily vertical.

A plane is a perfectly level surface, which may be either horizontal,
vertical, or inclined in any direction.

A straight rod applied to any such surface would touch it throughout its length and breadth. A line is said to be in a certain plane when throughout its length it touches the plane, or coincides with it. In perspective, the picture plane is the surface, paper, canvas or whatever it may be upon which the drawing is made. This is always supposed to be at right angles to the direction in which the spectator is looking. If we are standing erect, and looking straight in front of us, the picture plane will be vertical; for instance, if the picture were placed close to an ordinary wall, the picture plane would be vertical. A point on the picture plane exactly opposite the eye is called the center of vision. The horizontal line indicates on the paper the position of the natural horizon. It will be higher or lower, according to the position of the spectator. If the latter stands on a hill, the horizon line would be high. If he stands on a level with the sea beach, the horizon line will be low.

The three principal methods of representing objects are orthographic, isometrical and perspective projection. Linear perspective is the only one with which we deal.

An Illustrated Summary

One may successfully copy a picture without a knowledge of perspective, just as a carpenter may, if he has plans before him, erect an intricately constructed building without a knowledge of architecture; but no man could properly prepare such plans without any acquaintance whatever with the rudiments of the laws of architecture. One cannot paint well without some knowledge of drawing. One cannot draw more than the simplest picture without some knowledge of perspective.

The horizon of perspective, the horizon line, is more readily understood if you will imagine yourself standing at the sea shore gazing out upon the water. Where the sky apparently meets the water, is the horizon. Seen in a picture, from the level of a low beach, the line appears low down, under the middle of the picture. Now, go upon some promontory, and the horizon seems to go up with you, and in a picture would appear above the middle of the picture.

Imagine a large number of high poles placed upright in the sea, each pole twenty feet above the water’s level, extending at right angles to the shore far out at sea. (Fig. 18.) Now, if the line of poles comes within the range of your vision, each one that is more distant from you than the other will, in turn, seem to get smaller and smaller until the last one seems to disappear, as in Fig. 18. Row out on the sea until the poles are at right angles with the line of vision and the poles will appear as in Fig. 19.

Now row back to shore. We will suppose that another line of posts has been placed at right angles to the first mentioned. Their arrangement is shown in the plane diagram in Fig. 20. If you stand a little to the left of the nearest pole they will appear as seen in Fig. 21.

We will now suppose that the second row of posts has been taken up again and transplanted parallel with the first row, but a hundred feet away. Stand half way between them, but crouch close to the ground, and they will appear as in Fig. 22. The horizon will seem to have been lowered with you. Now stand on an elevation and look again. The horizon will seem to have risen with you. (Fig. 23.) Return to the place where you first stood, a rod or so to the left, and gaze again; the poles will appear as in Fig. 24.

Note: The horizon line in each of the figures is indicated by an A.

Four Important Points in Perspective – First, the point of sight; second, the horizon line; third, the vanishing point; fourth, the point of station.

The Point of Sight is that spot which the spectator sees when he looks straight before him.

The Horizon Line is a line parallel with the top and bottom of the picture drawn through the point of sight. The distance between the top and bottom of the picture, at which the horizon line is drawn is determined by the point of sight. If the point of sight is high, the horizon line will be correspondingly high. All actual horizontal lines (not parallel from right to left) above the horizon line are inclined toward it. Every receding line of the same kind that is below will run up to the horizon line. The vanishing points, with few exceptions, lie on the horizon line and are independent of the point of sight.

The Point of Sight Becomes a Vanishing Point for all lines (to the right and left of the spectator) that are at right angles to the upper and lower borders of the parallelogram containing the picture.

A large box, open at one end, has its front and back lines in parallel perspective if the opening is parallel with the body of the draftsman as he faces it, while the lines of the sides, top and bottom, recede directly from him. In this case, the point of sight becomes the vanishing point, because all the straight lines receding from the sight converge on this point.

On the contrary, the nearest and furthest lines of the top and bottom of the box being, both in reality and in the drawing, parallel, must be so drawn. These lines, however far they may be extended, would never meet. Whereas, all lines that recede from the spectator would meet if continued sufficiently. (See Figs. 16 and 17. Also see Fig. 4, chapter on Foreshortening. )

The box should now be turned around so one edge is toward the draftsman; thus two sides will be seen, each of which will require its own vanishing point.

In a Picture, There Is But One Point of Sight – There can be several vanishing points. A picture should never contain more than that which can be seen without moving the head. This area is comprised generally within an angle of sixty degrees, or one-sixth of everything the artist could see if he turned completely around as he would in order to sketch a panoramic view, which, however, does not come within the scope of these lessons.

Each Vanishing Point Determined by Point of Station – The point of station is somewhere in front of the landscape or picture, and is, in fact, the eye of the spectator. The distance of the spectator should be at a distance less than the front dimensions of the scene to be enclosed in the picture. That is to say, if the front line of the scene to appear in the picture was one hundred feet wide, the artist should not be stationed more than one hundred feet from the nearest object that appears in the picture. He may, and in most instances should, however, be stationed much nearer.

Locating the Point of Station – The point of station may be determined by having located both of the vanishing points. Or one vanishing point may be determined, which, together with the point of station, will determine the other vanishing point.

Two lines drawn from each of the vanishing points to the point of station should invariably form a right angle.

In the study of perspective it will be helpful to keep the following definitions and rules in mind. Even those already versed in art, through disuse, are prone to forget some of the simplest definitions.