To begin drawing you need the simplest of equipment. Here is a list of the tools you will find most useful.

Pencils

Lead pencils are made in different grades, ranging from 6H which is very hard to 6B which is very soft. HB is the commonest grade but is better for writing than drawing. The H range, used by architects and draughtsmen, is not recommended for drawing. It is better to choose a pencil from the B range: 2, 3 or 4B are probably the most suitable. The grade is shown on one end of the pencil and care must be taken not to sharpen that end.

Pencils are handy to carry about and can be bought anywhere. But they are not the best drawing media. The range of tone is narrow, you can’t get a good black with them, they shine unpleasantly when overworked, smudge easily and don’t frame up well. But for the workaday roughing out of ideas for composition, for beginning a watercolor or painting, tracing, or in combination with pen and ink, they are invaluable.

Most of the well-known brands of pencils: Venus, Royal Sovereign, Eagle, etc. give good results. They vary a little in quality, but experience will help you choose the one you like best.

Always keep your pencils well sharpened (Fig. 1). Old razor blades are excellent for this. But if you prefer a knife make sure that the blade is not too heavy, else you will be continually breaking the point. You can get a good point by rubbing on a fine sand paper.

Pen-and-ink drawing is not, as might be imagined, a comparatively recent form of artistic work, for in the great galleries of Europe one may find many interesting specimens of pen work made by Angelo, Raphael, Durer, Titian and others of the great masters. The manner of handling and style of pen work has changed, however, with modern inventions in the way of reproductive methods. The very spirit of pen work has changed only within a comparatively few years.

Continue Pencil Drawing – Even after pen-and-ink drawing is taken up, practice with the pencil should be continued.

The longer the pupil draws with the pencil and crayon the better. They are the most convenient and effective utensils at the artist’s command. Their frequent use should never be discarded.

Inability to make corrections easily in inked lines will discourage the student who is conscientious. Pencil and crayon are valuable because mistakes can be easily corrected at the time they are made. Before a mistake made with a pen can be rectified the ink must be quite dry, and the erasures must be made carefully, especial pains being taken not to disturb or roughen the surface of the paper or cardboard. Erasure may be made with a sharp knife or ink eraser; or the misplaced lines may be hidden or obscured by the use of a glaze of Chinese white.

Outline First With Pencil – Some teachers advocate drawing with pen-and-ink without the aid of a preliminary sketch with pencil. Writes one such teacher, “Practice drawing these (referring to certain subjects to be drawn) as rapidly as you can, without using the pencil in any way, using ink as a medium, you will be more apt to observe with care the exact character of each touch than if you employed the pencil whose marks can be so easily erased. This will, in time, give you greater confidence and facility of hand than can be had with either pencil or crayon.”

The quoted advice is wrong. The beginner should draw as slowly as possible. The writer is positive in these statements, and he is making them after many years of experience spent almost exclusively in making pen drawings for all sorts of practical purposes.

The sphere, the cube, the cylinder, the square prism, the hemisphere and the right-angled triangulared prism. These may be considered in the following order:

1. The surfaces and faces.
2. The edges.
3. The corners.

The surface is the outside of any object.

In the case of the cube, for instance, we find the surface limited and broken up by edges and faces. The face is a limited part of a surface. An edge is formed by the meeting of two faces.

When passing the fingers over the surface of one of the solids, the pupil discovers decided differences. He notes a plain or flat surface, a curved surface and a round surface. He finds that all are not the same shape, and learns that
Edges may be curved or straight.

Corners will be noted, as well as the difference in shape, if he is shown how to study them. Having familiarized himself by a study of each, it is well for the pupil to take the sphere and cube together, in order that he may observe their resemblances and their differences. Explain to him carefully the meaning of dimension.

Dimension is an extent in one direction.

Considered as to surfaces, their differences are notable. The surface of the sphere is curved equally in all its parts, while the cube’s surface has six equal plane faces.

Two of these six faces coming in contact form an edge, which is the subject of a second topic in the study of solids.

While the cube has twelve edges, the sphere has none.

As to Corners – The sphere has none; there can be no corners where there are no edges. The cube has eight corners.

Three or more faces must come in contact to form a corner. The angles of the plane faces of a cube are right angles, therefore on each cube twenty-four right angles are found.

Cylinder and Square Prism – Considered as a whole, the points of resemblance are these: The dimensions are the same in each.

As to Surface and Faces – The cylinder has both curved and plane surfaces; a square prism has only plane surfaces.

Considered as to their edges, the cylinder has curved edges; the square prism, straight edges. Considered as to corners, the square prism has the same number of corners as the cube; the cylinder has no corners.

Two cubes will make one square prism.
Faces are parallel to each other when they extend in the same direction.

Faces are perpendicular when they are at right angles to each other. A square corner would be formed by the intersection of three.

Faces are oblique to each other when they form angles other than right angles.

The solids are considered, first, as “wholes”; second, as “to surfaces and faces,” and, third, “as to edges.”

An edge is formed by the meeting of two faces.

Edges may be curved or straight. The surface of the sphere is curved equally in all parts, while the surface of the cube is composed of six equal plane faces. When any two of these faces come in contact an edge is formed.

A profile limits the part that we see of any round or curved surface. Profiles and edges limit and give visible shape to the faces and parts of faces.

Pastel-stencil work is a new and exceedingly fascinating
line of art work invented by the author of this work.

As its name indicates, it is a dry stencil process, easy and cleanly in operation.

For school room work it is better than any other method of stenciling. It is reversible, and by its use the most complex geometric, ornamental and other forms become simple.

One great advantage is that both sides of the stencil can be utilized. Because:
(1) The stencils are self-cleaning.
(2) Pigment never adheres sufficiently to cause smudging.

Blending Colors

In making designs by means of pastel stenciling one is enabled to blend colors and give variation to the lines and tints transferred, making modulations that cannot be obtained by any other stencil process.

Parts May Be Taken Out

By means of this method, with the use of the rubber or similar eraser parts of the design may be taken out, in the case of decorative design, gaining the effect of one ornament placed upon another.

The materials used are these:

A sheet of drawing paper
(or the blackboard).
A sheet of oil stencil board.
A pencil for making the design on the stencil.
A pen knife, of which only the extreme end of the blade
need be sharp.

An assortment of colored chalks or crayon. These must be soft to produce the best results.

The wax crayon can be used to a modified degree.

Rather strange to say, working with wax crayons is accompanied by less “mussing up” of the person using them, whereas the work itself is not so productive of neatness in effect as the use of the soft crayons.

Adapted for the Lower Grades

Work with pastel-stencils is admirably adapted for children in the lowest grades, because by this means the study of form becomes peculiarly interesting instead of tiresome. Teachers are thus enabled to supply their young pupils with the necessary models in colored form at hardly any outlay, either in time or money.

As an example, let the teacher cut stencils in shapes shown in Fig. 1, making copies for the pupils. By making them in various colors, color as well as form can be taught with a minimum of effort and a maximum of interest.

The sauce crayon mentioned in Chapter XXVI is excellent for pastel stenciling where soft gray and white effects are desired.

The Start of the Diagonal Method of Enlarging and Reducing

Only one drawing, about 4 x 6 inches in size, not four drawings, as indicated, are to be made. Proceed thus: draw a rectangle as in A. Intersect with diagonals as shown in A and B.

Intersect the diagonals with a horizontal line as in C and finally with a vertical intersecting line as in D. All lines inside of the rectangle should be made very light. They are merely guide lines to be erased when the drawing is completed.

Blackboard Exercise – Draw the lines in Fig. 6 on the blackboard with the guide lines, and let the pupils copy them by means of the triangular guide lines. The first one by the aid of a single oblique line. The second by the aid of two oblique lines; the third with two oblique lines and one horizontal line; the fourth aided by the addition of a vertical line.

Errors Quickly Noted – For the beginner, even a common vase or teacup is a difficult subject. Straight, upright and oblique guiding-lines are helpful in drawing curved objects. The following diagrams will make the method clear. By this means, as will be observed, the several parts are balanced with ease, and errors quickly noticed and corrected. The use of these lines accustoms the pupil to judge the relative proportions of the different parts of an object as related to the whole.

The divisions made by vertical, horizontal and oblique lines will greatly aid the pupil in his work. He is thus enabled to become methodical and accurate in his measurements, and will cultivate what is known as the “true eye” for drawing.

Do not, however, encourage the pupil to depend on or permit himself to be crippled by the constant application of mechanical methods or appliances, or allow the use thereof to interfere with free-hand drawing. They are intended for occasional use. To avoid this, have him frequently lay aside the guide line methods and trust more to the eye.

Whenever desirable, more divisions can easily be made. The additional spaces need not be made over the entire surface, but the surface may be subdivided indefinitely in whole or in part, according to the intricacy of detail in the design to be copied, same size, enlarged or reduced.

To enlarge or reduce one may resort to any of the following methods:

(1) Photography.

(2) The mechanical instrument known as the pantograph.

(3) The mechanical instrument known as the proportional dividers.

(4) Free hand drawing. Good practice, but not conducive to accuracy.

(5) Squaring the original by means of intersecting horizontal and vertical lines. This requires great care in preparation and use. The squares must be square and usually require numbering along at least two sides of the original and of the copy.

(6) Triangulation. An old and simply made geometrical form which I have adopted for the purpose of enlarging and reducing.

In my practice it has, since my discovery of its new use, entirely superseded the laborious, if time-honored, methods. By its use ordinary care produces accurate work, no measurements being required except when laying out the perimeters.

In the squaring method even an ordinary reduction or enlargement requires from 16 to 64 squares, the latter with boundary numbers 1, 2, 3,4, 5,6, 7 and 8 on at least two sides of both original and copy. In this maze the draftsman is apt (to become “lost.” In the method I have adopted, the triangulation forms a pattern which aids the eye to keep within the proper corresponding spaces. That is, each triangle, in the original and in the drawing under way, occupies a distinctive and individual position not observable in the squares.

I have not space here to describe the numerous applications and advantages of the triangular method, nor even to describe its operation beyond giving a diagram of its most primitive, simplest form, as shown in the accompanying figures.

These figures merely show the progress of the method. A square or other parallelogram is drawn first, the oblique, vertical and horizontal lines being added.

In a drawing in which the detail is complex, the triangles are easily subdivided, both in the original and in the drawing to be made from it.

Not alone is this method superior in every way to the “squaring” process, but it provides a sure and easy way to make regularly proportional distortions.

Not long ago an engraver on old gold and silver ware came to me. He was distressed. An order had been given to him in which it was required that certain heraldric devices should appear on some silver plate. The devices included the pleasant-looking creature shown in Fig.1.

The engraver’s trouble was that the mythological animal had to be reproduced in narrow vertical and horizontal panels, respectively, of certain definite dimensions. My engraver friend did not know how to get the “critter” squeezed and distended into anything like proper proportions.

Figs. 2 and 3 show the engraver’s purpose was satisfactorily accomplished.

It is to be hoped that the result pleased his customer. It was my conjecture that the griffons might be intended for evolutional ancestral portraits and if my surmise was correct the two distortions might serve as portraits of two of his ancestors-one attenuated and the other obese. Anyway, I would as soon trace my origin to a fine official and officious looking griffon – or whatever it is – as to a grinning, chat. tering chimpanzee.

Another Example – Fig. 4 is another example of what may be done in the way of varying the form of an area in which any design may be placed.

Imitation or copy drawing is valuable at the outset, as it imparts style or method of handling. To an extent it reveals the personality. By its use the pupil gains accuracy of eye measurement, errors in that respect being more readily shown than when drawing from model.

Drawing from copy also trains the eye by giving it some means of correcting its mistake in the estimate of lengths and values of lines.

Perspective or object drawing gives a knowledge of form, color, and construction. Ideas of relation and relative sizes are thus acquired.

Imaginary and memory drawings enable the pupil to express thought and impart ideas.

Intermingling parts of all three supports, helps and explains the others.
In copying one is shown how.
In object drawing one sees how.
In imaginative drawing one thinks how.

EYE MEASUREMENTS

Measurement Exercise – As the pupil progresses, greater accuracy in eye-measurement will become apparent. This can be hastened by frequent practice exclusively in this direction.

A good plan is for the teacher to draw straight lines of various determined lengths, requiring pupils to bisect, trisect and quadrisect them at regular intervals. Thus, draw a line four inches long to be divided in half. Then the same line in three equal divisions; then into four equal divisions.

PROPORTION

Proportion, and What Is Meant by Out of Proportion – For example: If a picture of a man were drawn with the head twice as long as the head should be, as is shown in Fig. 1, Chap. 19, that would be called out of proportion, because it would be unnatural.

It should be in “good proportion,” which means it should be near the natural size as compared with other parts of the body. The ability to draw the figure in proper proportion requires considerable practice, close observation and accurate eye-measurement.

Varying Proportions – In drawing the head of a child, the same proportions as adults does not exist; the child’s head being larger in proportion to the body than in the case of adults. There are also further variations. Putting a very small head on the body of a child would make the drawing appear as much out of proportion as in the case of the overlarge head referred to. In caricature, lapses from true proportion are permitted. Then it is done purposely to produce a ludicrous effect.

Relative Proportions – Ability to represent the relative size or proportion of one object to another is an essential element in correct drawing. To accomplish this the pupil requires aid from the teacher.

An effective method of teaching this is to choose some object for a unit of measure or comparison, and place others beside it, one or several at a time.

Any well-known object will do, as, for instance, a piece of fruit, such as an apple or an orange-or a ball.

Exercise in Proportion – Make a drawing of the object selected and compare it with some other object of about the same size. Then place beside them still another object, two or three times as large, such as a book or cap. Now let the pupil make a drawing showing the three objects in their relative sizes.

Any small wooden or cardboard box may be used in connection with other small boxes to demonstrate proportionate sizes.

Place the apple (or whatever object is selected) on a box and draw both in proportion.

Proceed with the exercise by drawing from imagination (or copy) some other object with which the student is familiar and draw the object in proportion. The subject may be a bird, a mouse, a set of keys, a cup, mug – any object that is not larger than the box itself.

The Scale on Which Drawings Should Be Made

One of the greatest faults of the beginner, and a very natural fault, is to draw on too small a scale. In copying from printed pictures, taken from periodicals of any kind, the beginner very naturally imitates the pictures as he sees them, not knowing that in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred the picture is the reduced reproduction of a drawing which was originally much larger than it appears in print.

It is well to vary the size of the drawing. A pupil working long on a very small scale would in time acquire a cramped style; on the other hand, a pupil working for an extended period at the blackboard would find it difficult to draw on a more minute scale.

Drawing from Models – Material for models is found in many of the familiar objects which surround us, such as balls, oranges, apples, potatoes, and small paper boxes. These should be drawn singly at first and in groups as the study progresses. Such objects present fairly dull surfaces and are therefore recommended. Objects having very glossy or shiny surfaces are to be avoided in all early practice. Models with dull surfaces present only light and shade in varying degree and cast simple shadows. Shiny surfaces receive and reflect complex lights and shades, hence the objection to their use.

Avoiding Confusion – In order not to confuse the eye of the pupil objects of a single color are best. The eye is centered then on form and outline rather than color. The simplest way to effect this when plaster casts are not available is to prepare a basin one-quarter full of whiting to which a small quantity of glue has been added and mixed with water until the consistency of cream is obtained. Then dip in this pigment articles to be used for models, such as a brick, a potato, a carrot, a turnip or even an old shoe.

When dry these objects will serve temporarily nearly as well as clay or plaster models. Let these be drawn singly or in groups. For the earliest exercises more than one object at a time is not desirable.

Placing the Model – Unless there is contrast in light or color it is difficult for the eye to discern the shape of an object. For example, place a piece of cardboard against the blackboard, its outline is easily distinguished. On the other hand, place the same piece of paper flat against another and larger piece of cardboard of the same color, and its form can scarcely be perceived. Keep this experiment in mind when drawing from any model. If the latter is dark, place it against a light background, if you wish the best effect. Reverse the process if the article used is light in color.

Light and Shade – For models for early work in light and shade, small objects with simple outlines should be selected. They should be free from polished surfaces. Select, instead, any piece of dull earthenware or wooden object; or, best of all, something made of plaster of paris. A small wooden or paper box is good; anything, in fact, that has a well defined outline with a fairly dull surface.

Place the object selected in front of the pupil on a sheet of white paper and, if possible. in such a position that it receives the light from one direction only. If the object receives light from more than one direction, multiplicity of undefined shadows will cause a confusing effect.

Shoes as Models – Shoes, the older the better, are excellent models. Their study leads to more natural appearance to the clothed human figure in subsequent drawings from memory or imagination. Feet are generally considered very difficult things to draw-meaning feet enclosed in the usual footwear of mankind. In drawing shoes, it is well to place them well below the eye, since that is the position in which they are generally seen.

The drawings should be blocked-in as indicated in the sketch shown in chapter on blocking-in.

How to Measure – When drawing from any object the proportion can be measured by holding up a pencil and measuring or gauging on it with the thumb, and comparing the length of one point with another, as shown in the accompanying diagram.

To insure accuracy the pencil must be held at arm’s length and at right angles to the line of vision.

Hold the pencil so that the end comes between the eye and some certain point on the object to be drawn; for instance, in drawing a house, the height of the chimney might be taken as a standard of measurement. Hold the pencil upright, the top on a line with the chimney top. Now move the thumb downward until the end of the thumb comes between the eye and the bottom of the chimney. Then draw the chimney. Repeat the measuring operation, finding where the length of the chimney corresponds to other parts of the building.

That is to say, the pencil may be moved between the object and the eye and by using the chimney length as a standard, corresponding length and width thereof may be estimated.

Subjects for Simple Drawings – Draw the front of the house in which you live. If it is a simply constructed building this will not he difficult. If it is somewhat ornate in its facade, draw only a part of the detail, such as the front door or a window or two. Draw any of the outbuildings, such as the barn, the shed, or a chicken coop, or garage.

As mere suggestions from memory subjects, the following are offered. Many others will suggest themselves to the teacher according to the surroundings:

SUBJECTS

Draw
– The house you live in.
– The mailbox.
– The front door.
– The shed.
– The dog house.
– The wheel of the wheel-barrow.
– A wheel-barrow.
– The handle of the shovel.
– The shovel.
– Any toy.
– Draw a horse.
– Draw the wheels and the steering wheel of a car.
– The car itself.
– Draw any piece of furniture.
– A broom.
– A serving spoon.
– Anything else used in the kitchen.
– Any simple garden tool.
– Any carpenter’s tool, such as a saw, hammer, screwdriver, level etc. Draw any tool used by a plumber, electrician, musician or skilled worker.
– Draw any article of clothing: A hat, slipper, boot, or shoe. (Coats and dresses may be found rather difficult at first and may be omitted from the earliest exercises.)
– Draw a barrel, a pail, a dipper or cup.
– Show with a few lines what a lamp or a candlestick looks like.
– The pupil should not be discouraged if he fails to draw more than a few of these subjects. If he can do a few fairly well, he is making a very good beginning.

Correct Outlines

The student should become as perfect as possible in his ability to depict things by means of outlines. The outline is important always. Even in a drawing composed entirely of tints and shadows the areas of light and shadow, have their definite outline and they must be accurately placed. The limit of one’s ability to draw correctly an outline is the limit of one’s ability to reproduce, with any art utensil, be it brush or pencil, the boundaries of given objects. To do the latter well is a great part of aJl that can be learned from instruction in art. Unless one can represent form by means of outline one will not be able to do so by means of light and shade effects alone.